Drawing the line – cartography, borders and the negotiation of space in a historical perspective

Donald Trump's symbolic gesture of altering geographic names and Russia’s use of historical maps to justify the invasion of Ukraine are contemporary reminders that cartography plays an important role in the creation and contestation of political territories. Far from being neutral representations of geographic space, maps have a long history as tools of power. In our workshop, we will explore several historical examples of how cartography (both hand-drawn and printed) has contributed to the making and unmaking of territorial claims. We will consider the visual and narrative strategies used and reflect on the audiences for whom maps were produced in different contexts. This can help help us critically engage with modern cartographic practices in shaping borders and communicating territorial claims.

Case study 1: observational cartography in early modern Germany

Eine interessante kartographische Tradition, die eng mit gerichtlichen Streitigkeiten über Grenzen und Territorien verbunden war, ist die sog. "Augenscheinkarte". Augenscheinkarten werden im deutschen Sprachraum, wo sie seit dem frühen 16. Jahrhundert verbreitet sind, deshalb auch als "Streitkarten" bezeichnet. Man versteht darunter eine handgezeichnete Landkarte, die topographische Sachverhalte eher vage nach einer Besichtigung des Geländes abbildet, ohne dass eine Landesvermessung erfolgt.

In Archiven sind diese Karten meist im Kontext umfangreicherer Gerichtsakten überliefert, weshalb die frühere Forschung davon ausging, dass sie als rechtliches Beweismaterial genutzt wurden. Aber neuere Forschungen nehmen an, dass es sich eher um unterstützende Illustrationen eines Streitfalls handelte, die nur im Verbund mit den Textdokumenten zu verstehen sind, aber auch außergerichtlich genutzt wurden.

Besonders viele Augenscheinkarten der frühen Neuzeit sind aus den Gegenden längs des Rheins überliefert, weil der Rhein als wichtiger Handelsweg und als Finanzressource durch Zoll- und Stapelrechte für alle anliegenden Fürstentümer attraktiv war. Hier entstanden oft künstlerisch anspruchsvolle Karten mit vielen naturalistischen Details. (Kümper, Seite 57)

Andere Augenscheinkarten sind sehr abstrakt und konzentrieren sich auf einige wenige besondere Merkmale wie Grenzsteine.

Die hier eingebundene Karte aus dem Bestand des Hessischen Staatsarchivs Darmstadt (Signatur HStAD, P 1, 2522) zeigt eine vergleichsweise abstrakte Faustskizze aus dem Jahr 1628, die die ungefähren Grenzverläufe der drei Dörfer Angenroth, Gleimenhain und Fischbach sowie ihre Nachbarschaft zu den Territorien Hessen-Darmstadt, Hessen-Kassel und Kurmainz abbildet:

Karte HStAD P 1, 2522

Angefertigt wurde sie vom Rentmeister Daniel Ludwig Lüncker in Alsfeld, vermutlich im Auftrag der landgräflichen Regierung von Hessen-Darmstadt unter Landgraf Georg II. Die Karte misst 33 x 42 cm, besteht aus Papier und umfasst ein einzelnes Blatt.

Der Originaltitel lautet:

"Ungefehrer Abriß dardurch nurentgezeiget würd, wie die drei Dorff Angenroht, Gleymenhain sowie Fischbach ... Landgraf Georgen zu Hessen etc. Land und an Kurmainz und einesteils an Hessen-Kassel stoßen."

Alsfeld, wo die Karte erstellt wurde, war vom Mittelalter bis in die Frühe Neuzeit ein bedeutender und oft umkämpfter Handelsplatz. Die Stadt schloss sich der Reformation an, gehörte im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert wie viele umliegende Dörfer zu verschiedenen Fürstentümern der Region. Seit 1567 gehörte Alsfeld zu Hessen-Marburg und ab 1604 zur Landgrafschaft Hessen-Darmstadt. Der Dreißigjährige Krieg richtete große Schäden an, und die Stadt wurde von verschiedenen Heeren besetzt, darunter 1622 von Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel und 1640 von schwedischen Truppen. Im Hessenkrieg von 1645 bis 1648 lag Alsfeld an der Grenze der beiden Konfliktparteien Hessen-Darmstadt und Hessen-Kassel. Dieser Krieg, der zu einer langen Reihe von diplomatischen und militärischen Konflikten zwischen den Familienzweigen des hessischen Fürstenhauses gehörte, ging zurück auf eine Erbteilung nach dem Tod des letzten gesamthessischen Landgrafen Philipp I. im Jahre 1567.

Arbeitsauftrag für die Gruppe:

Literatur:

Timpener, Evelien. "3 Von der Inaugenscheinnahme zur Karte. Das Verhältnis zwischen Text und Bild." In Augenschein genommen: Hessische Lokal- und Regionalkartographie in Text und Bild (1500–1575), Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Oldenbourg, 2022, pp. 68–124. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110777598-004

Kümper, Hiram. "Streit um den Rhein: von Zöllen, Sand und ganz viel Ärger." Mannheimer historische Schriften, Nr. 3, Universität Mannheim, 2022, pp. X–Y. https://majournals.bib.uni-mannheim.de/download

Case study 2: Indigenous cartography versus European conventions

"What I call "modern geography"—meaning the Anglophone geography that has emerged during the past two centuries with influence from France and Germany—grew as both a tool and a product of the colonial era. The discipline helped map out the civilized and the uncivilized and the place of each in a world of empires." (Herman, p. 73) "In Indigenous sciences, the world is often understood in terms of flows of energies (and sometimes entities) across a permeable boundary between manifest and unmanifest realities. Working relationships with forces deemed "superstitious" or "irrational" in modern science are significant aspects of social processes and healing practices.8 Maintaining these worldviews and practices is an uphill battle against the hegemony of modern scientific thought and the legacy of missionaries and educators who tried so hard to dismantle Indigenous knowledge systems." (Herman, p. 75) Since time immemorial, Indigenous peoples have mapped and named places in their homelands. Indigenous peoples represent their territories through stories and use visual and conceptual maps for purposes such as regulating land use and demarcating territory. Indigenous place names can represent historical events and legal principles or describe geographical features such as the location of caribou crossings or seagull nesting sites. Indigenous place names can also convey teachings on living in relation to others and the land. Newcomers arriving in Canada had false ideas about Indigenous inhabitants and their relationship to the land. European colonizers elaborated concepts such as the doctrine of discovery. As noted in the Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (vol. 1, p. 47), “[u]pon the ‘discovery’ of the North American continent by Europeans, according to this doctrine, the newcomers were immediately vested with full sovereign ownership of the discovered lands and everything on them.” In Canada, settlers mapped, named, and asserted control over the land. They dispossessed Indigenous peoples of their homelands and replaced Indigenous place names with names reflecting European culture and history. Today, Indigenous peoples are remapping and renaming their homelands to assert their presence on the land, revitalize their languages, and share their stories, histories, and knowledge about their homelands. Maps are also used to educate future generations, share Indigenous knowledge, and assert title over their territories through land claims processes and in the courts. The Indigenous Peoples Atlas of Canada shows new (ethnic) perspectives on the history and geography of Canada in the form of maps that largely follow established Western conventions of map-making, including common spatial projections and legends (see map of Inuit Owned Lands in Nunavut below). https://indigenouspeoplesatlasofcanada.ca/article/nunavut/ https://indigenouspeoplesatlasofcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Inuit-Owned-Lands-in-Nunavut-2016.gif The craft of making maps drew from social memory, indigenous and European conceptions of space and ritual, and Spanish legal practices designed to adjust spatial boundaries in the New World. Indigenous mapmaking brought together a distinct coalition of social actors—Indian leaders, native towns, notaries, surveyors, judges, artisans, merchants, muleteers, collectors, and painters—who participated in the critical observation of the region’s geographic features. Demand for maps reconfigured technologies associated with the making of colorants, adhesives, and paper that drew from Indian botany and experimentation, trans-Atlantic commerce, and Iberian notarial culture. The maps in this study reflect a regional perspective associated with Oaxaca’s decentralized organization, its strategic position amidst a network of important trade routes that linked central Mexico to Central America, and the ruggedness and diversity of its physical landscape. The map below is by an unknown artist from Tetliztaca, Mexico, and was created in around 1581. It is held by the Benson Latin American Collection at the University of Texas, Astin: https://d7hftxdivxxvm.cloudfront.net/?height=2880&quality=80&resize_to=fit&src=https%3A%2F%2Fartsy-media-uploads.s3.amazonaws.com%2FHeVNkRocI-Kh-NeFfWcT3w%252F5.Tetliztaca.jpg&width=2880 In 2019, the Blanton Museum of Art at the University of Texas exhibited this map alongside 18 other hand-painted indigenous maps, which are collective known as the "Mapas de las Relaciones Geográficas", in their exhibition “Mapping Memory: Space and History in 16th-century Mexico”. Questions for discussion: - Look at the visual elements used in the map and try to describe them? In what categories do they fall? What is different from modern-day maps that you use? What do the visual markers used tell us about the indigenous relationship with space? Which elements are distinctly colonial and where do you observe boundaries between spheres? - As Monica Uszerowicz recounts in her article about the exhibition of the indigenous "Mapas", their hybrid style challenges the idea that Indigenous cultures were completely destroyed by the Spanish invasion. Can you think of other examples where geography and cartography combine elements from different cultures and perhaps help to preserve traditional knowledge where other media are no longer available? - Indigenous maps, like maps generally, also point to social hierarchies within a community as the ability to draw and represent knowledge about space is linked with education and status. Similarly, owning and reading maps requires financial resources and skills. The Mexican indigenous maps were mostly made by elites, and Mestiza culture also seem to have played an important role. What do you think? Does highlighting geographic and cartographic production deflect our attention too much from everyday lives of the lower classes? What place should elite production generally have in the context of postcolonial and de-colonial discourse? Herman, R. (2008). Reflections on the importance of Indigenous geography. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 32(3), 73–88. https://doi.org/10.17953/aicr.32.3.n301616057133485 Hidalgo, Alex. Trail of Footprints: A History of Indigenous Maps from Viceregal Mexico. University of Texas Press, 2019. Indigenous Peoples Atlas of Canada. https://indigenouspeoplesatlasofcanada.ca/. Accessed 12 May 2025. loprespub. “Putting Indigenous Perspectives on the Map: Indigenous Mapping and Place Names*.” HillNotes, 21 June 2021, https://hillnotes.ca/2021/06/21/putting-indigenous-perspectives-on-the-map-indigenous-mapping-and-place-names/. Uszerowicz, Monica. “Indigenous Artists Used Maps as Tools of Resistance in Colonial Mexico.” Artsy, 20 Sept. 2019, https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-indigenous-artists-maps-tools-resistance-colonial-mexico.

Case study 3: Maps as weapons? The 2023 Chinese standard map controversy

In 2023, China released an updated map during their annual “National Mapping Awareness Publicity Week.” This map, hosted on the Ministry of Natural Resources’ cartographic service website, extends territorial claims along China’s western border with India, the South China Sea, and Taiwan. The inclusion of a “ten-dash line” around the South China Sea and Taiwan further complicates maritime disputes. The Philippines, Malaysia, Taiwan, India, and Vietnam have rejected the map, and international news services as well as NGOs have discussed the geopolitical strategy behind it. Simone McCarthy, writing for CNN, discussed controversies about Chinese maps more generally and mentioned that a recent digital map used by Chinese web-services missed the country name Israel while the Gaza conflict is on-going. In general, China is known to pay careful attention to their own maps but also monitors how their territories are depicted abroad. (McCarthy, 2023) M. Respinti (Bitter Winter) pointed out that manipulations of geography have real-life implications for human beings and should not be taken lightly: "The distortions and the far-reaching implications that those maps carry within the broader geopolitical and human landscapes make the topic extremely sensitive." (Respinti, 2024) Similar concerns were voiced by B. Sebastian (Modern Diplomacy) and the editing team behind Investigative Journalism Reportika. Meanwhile, Oiwan Lam, a regional editor at Global Voices for Northeast Asia and media activist based in Hong Kong, pointed out that the 2023 standard map of China had "nothing new": "The map is consistent with China's previous claims, which have extended its jurisdiction over disputed areas along India and Russia's borders and in the South China Sea." (Oiwan Lam, 2023) So why did so many countries protest more vocally then ever before? According to Lam, what has changed is not the map, but its context: "China has become more aggressive in establishing its military presence around the Paracel Islands near Vietnam’s exclusive economic zone (EEZ), Scarborough Shoal and Spratly Islands near the Philippines EEZ through military drills, the construction of artificial islands and permanent facilities and deployment of large vessels to patrol in the disputed area in the past two decades. The aim is to control fishing operations, oil and gas exploration activities, and seabed internet cable-laying operations." The map below is a screenshot of the new Chinese map shared by Oiwan Lam in her blog post, showing China's claims over the entire South China Seas. The screenshot was taken from the Chinese government standard map service website, which is not accessible from all IP addresses: https://globalvoices.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Screenshot-2023-09-02-12.44.12-PM-1200x675.png Official English-language information by the Chinese government on this map including a larger Chinese-language screenshot is shared here, but the screenshot provided is not zoomable and too small to read: https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202308/28/WS64ec91c2a31035260b81ea5b.html However, the contested black-and-purple lines around the South China Sea are clearly visible. Questions for discussion: - Look at Oiwan Lam's English-language screenshot of the 2023 map and discuss the different types of borders shown in the legend. Apart from a national boundary, we see boundaries for provinces, regions or municipalities under control of the central government, as well as so-called "banner" (内蒙古自治区旗界, translated by to "regional" in the screenshot) boundaries exclusive to the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. The legend also includes a dotted "military demarcation line". What roles do these different boundaries most likely play in China's administration and international relations? - Why is it necessary for the Chinese government to regularly issue a new "standard map"? Which other countries do this and why? Can you name other conflicts that have recently arisen from this practice? - In what contexts do you consult official government-issued maps for specific countries rather than Google maps or similar (US-based) web-mapping services? What are the (dis)advantages? - Oiwan Lam points that all maps have context. What can be done to raise awareness for the contextuality and, therefore, lack in neutrality in the general public? Literature: Investigative Journalism Reportika. (2024, September 7). The geopolitical weaponization of maps by China. https://ij-reportika.com/weaponization-of-maps-by-china-throughout-history/ Respinti, M. (2024, April 3). The CCP’s weaponization of geographical maps. Bitter Winter. A magazine on religious liberty and human rights. https://bitterwinter.org/the-ccps-weaponization-of-geographical-maps/ Kaarten die geschiedenis schreven. 1000 jaar wereldgeschiedenis in 100 oude kaarten Auteur: Martijn Storms | Uitgever: Lannoo As Gaza conflict rages, online maps from Chinese companies are missing Israel’s name, By Simone McCarthy, CNN, Published 12:12 AM EDT, Thu November 2, 2023 https://edition.cnn.com/2023/11/02/china/china-maps-baidu-amap-israel-intl-hnk The Chinese 2023 map has nothing new. But why are China’s neighbours mad about it? (2023, October 2). Global Voices. https://globalvoices.org/2023/09/05/the-chinese-2023-map-has-nothing-new-but-why-are-chinas-neighbours-mad-about-it/ Sebastian, B. (2023, August 30). China’s updated map and the undoing of diplomacy. Modern Diplomacy. https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2023/08/30/chinas-updated-map-and-the-undoing-of-diplomacy/ Oiwan Lam, 2023, The Chinese 2023 map has nothing new. But why are China’s neighbours mad about it? https://globalvoices.org/2023/09/05/the-chinese-2023-map-has-nothing-new-but-why-are-chinas-neighbours-mad-about-it/